The Writing Process

Writing Style

Writing for an Extension audience is different from other types of professional, research-based writing. It is important to remember that Extension publications serve a wide audience of readers, from the novice who has no knowledge of the subject to the researcher who has advanced familiarity with it. The challenge for Extension’s authors is to create a publication that will connect the information to as many readers as possible. This includes presenting the information in a style that is easy to understand yet that does not “talk down” to advanced readers. One of the most effective ways to do this is by avoiding passive voice writing whenever possible in favor of active voice.

Passive voice, for better or for worse, is often used in scientific writing. Many writers believe it is an effective means of presenting information in an even-handed manner with neither opinion nor bias. Unfortunately, it often results in text that contains excessively long and confusing sentences with unnecessary jargon. It can also result in unintended anthropomorphism (attributing human attributes to animals or objects).

Active voice, on the other hand, is generally easier to read because it is usually closer to everyday speech patterns. Those who hear the written word when they read find it particularly effective. Sentences in active voice are usually shorter than those used in passive voice and are closer to conversational style.

One way to recognize the difference between the two voices is to identify the subject of the sentence in question. Consider the following example:

Studies by the University of Connecticut have found that blue-winged snipe prefer to nest atop billboards.

In this case, the writer wishes to share what is perceived as an important finding in the study about the blue-winged snipe and its behavior. However, as written, neither the birds nor their behavior are the subject of the sentence. The phrase “Studies by the University of Connecticut” is actually the subject. This is an example of passive voice.

There are several ways to identify passive voice in writing. Two of the most common are:

1. The presence of anthropomorphism: “Studies,” as inanimate objects, cannot collect data or reach conclusions.
2. The use of “has/have” or “is/was”: Passive voice often features this word or other forms of the verb in conjunction with the past participles of other verbs. Examples include “have found,” “has demonstrated,” “have estimated,” and “has concluded.” Passive voice may also use forms of the verb “to be” plus a past participle (e.g., “is found,” “was demonstrated,” “is estimated,” “was concluded”).

The example sentence can be re-written into active voice, depending on what the author wishes to convey. Two possibilities are:

1. University of Connecticut researchers observed that blue-winged snipe prefer to nest atop billboards. (“Researchers” are the subject)
2. Blue-winged snipe in Connecticut prefer to nest atop billboards. (“Blue-winged snipe” are the subject)

Active voice allows the author a variety of choices. These examples allow the author to follow the connections (between researchers' observations and the birds, or between the birds and the billboards) with more information. The choice of form depends on how much further detail the author intends to present. The first sentence, for example, could be followed by additional text connecting additional researchers' observations to the birds (such as, “However, University of Massachusetts researchers observed no such behavior.”). The second could be accompanied by text further that connects the birds and billboards, or not (such as, “In Rhode Island, the same species prefers to nest atop lighthouses.”).

Consult the resources in the table of contents at the top of the page for more guidance.

Take the Passive Voice vs. Active Voice Challenge! Go to the accordion tab at the bottom of the page to start, or continue to Draft Formatting Requirements.

✍️ Resources

• For more on passive voice and active voice:

  • Passive Voice

  • Active Voice

• Grammarly Online Writing Assistant

Draft Formatting Requirements

At this time, UME computers are equipped with Microsoft Office programs. The TERPware website offers programs from Adobe Creative Suite for download and installation. Each set of apps can contribute an author’s efforts to draft a publication. In this section, we’ll share five important guidelines that each author needs to follow as early as possible in the writing process. These will help reduce the amount of time between submission to FastTrack and publication.

1. Choosing your Software
2. Choosing your Publication Type
3. Assembling your Draft
4. Citing Publications Within the Draft
5. Citing Works Consulted

Continue to Choosing your Software.

Choosing your Software

Choosing the right software for your draft publication is often a matter of personal preference, but there are certain requirements involved when publishing with UME.

Please note that the Publications Team prefers drafts to be submitted in Microsoft Word. Word provides a wealth of desktop publishing tools, such as the ability to create lists, tables, headers and sub headers, and to display and manage edits and suggestions via “Track Changes.” The Track Changes feature is a valuable asset in the writing process, especially when multiple authors are involved in the draft. It is also a valuable asset to the Publications Team. Authors can use it to review who made a particular edit or added a new paragraph. The managing editor uses it to create suggested changes, to add questions raised by unclear or incomplete descriptions, and to edit the text. At this time, Word documents provide the greatest flexibility when it comes time to import the text into a UME publications template.

Please note that Word files should be submitted with as little formatting as possible. This includes populating the text within a UME template. Removing these design elements delays the review process.

The Publications Team also accepts drafts as PDF files. Some authors prefer to work with a graphic designer to achieve a particular look for their publication, especially if the draft is intended to be part of an existing series. The publication may also include non-text items such as PowerPoint files for educational use. In that case, the draft must be saved as a PDF file, using a program such as Adobe Acrobat, before it can be uploaded to FastTrack and subsequently edited. The editor will provide feedback via Adobe Acrobat’s Comments and Edit Text functions.

Certain software, such as Microsoft Publisher and Adobe InDesign, have options that turn off automatic hyphenating. This option is particularly useful as the text will flow from line to line without creating breaks and without the need for manual hard returns (also known as “line breaks”). The added value to enabling this feature is that it decreases the amount of time the publication team may need to manually remove hyphens and line breaks when importing the text into a template or when publishing online.

Please contact the team for more information.

Continue to Choosing Your Publication Type.

Choosing your Publication Type

Because Extension serves a wide variety of citizens across the state, there are a variety of publication formats from which to choose. Be sure to consult Choosing the Right Publication Type for Your Manuscript (this site) or the Publication Designations page to ensure that your content fits one of the formats listed.

Continue to Assembling your Draft.

Assembling Your Draft

Not all publications will consist of pages of text and illustrative photos and/or graphics. Some manuscripts will consist of several parts, such as lessons, activities, game pieces, graphics, worksheets, or PowerPoint-type slide shows. All of these parts should be assembled into a single file for submission. In this case, save each different part as a single PDF file and then assemble them into one larger file for submission and review. This ensures that the entire contents is reviewed by the managing editor at the same time. See Signing Up for FastTrack for additional information.

Proceed to Citing Publications Within the Draft.

Citing Publications Within the Draft

In order to develop a consistent look among UME publications, all authors should use scientific notations in APA Style when citing references. The format to follow is:

Blue-winged snipe in Connecticut prefer to nest atop billboards (Walker & Davenport, 2017).

If citing a work within a sentence, place the citation as close to the author(s) or reference as possible:

Blue-winged snipe in Connecticut prefer to nest atop billboards (Walker & Davenport, 2017). In that same region, Sanchez and Lemieux (2019) observed snipe avoiding newer billboards with electronic features that change the advertisements.

Please do not use endnotes that require superscripts. These result in unnecessary formatting challenges
when importing text to established templates and when publishing online.

Continue to Citing Works Consulted.

Citing Works Consulted

Authors have a measure of flexibility when listing outside works (e.g., works that have been published by other authors). Depending on the publication, these may be listed as “References,” “Works Consulted,” or “For more information.” In short- to medium-length publications (such as Extension Briefs, Fact Sheets, and Extension Bulletins), these can be included at the end of the document. In longer publications, the authors may choose to include these at the end of each chapter or lesson. See UME Answers’ Publication Designations for more information on publication formats and length.

Regardless of the name of the section, all references should be listed alphabetically by lead author’s last name. Please follow APA Style when formatting citations. For example, an article in a published journal would appear as:

Sanchez. A.R. & K.B. Lemieux (2019). Nesting Habits of Blue-winged Snipe Changing in Response to New Advertising Devices. Southern New England Bird Behavior Journal, 22(3), 24-36.

Images and Graphics

Authors should include a variety of images and graphics in their publication draft. They will help illustrate the topics and concepts presented in the text, can summarize findings, and can help break up blocks of text. A well-chosen photograph can catch a reader’s eye as easily as an effective title or heading.

There is a wide variety of online resources which can provide generic (“stock”) images of individuals and groups in situations such as classrooms and outdoor activities. Consult the list at the bottom of this section for some popular choices. Some images are free, while others can be purchased individually or as part of a collection. Additionally, the University is fortunate to have access to many of the photographs of Edwin Remsburg at no charge via the AGNR Image Library. The challenge for authors is to not only find the best graphics to illustrate their work, but to find the best version of those graphics. Photos and images that render effectively online are less effective in print. Many websites use images with relatively low resolution (72 dpi) in order to increase the loading speed of each page. However, such an image has too low a resolution for effective print publication. In order to be effective both in print and online, all images and graphics used for UME publications must be 300 dpi or higher.

In some cases, websites will have size options available for download. For example, has several options for most photos. In other cases, authors may need to contact the original photographer for a higher-resolution version. This also affords the authors the opportunity to let the photographer know their work is being considered, to obtain permission if needed, and to ensure correct citation (see the next section).

Authors can check the information of most images saved online by examining its properties. Once the image is saved, right-click on the file name and choose “Properties.” Examine the information under the “Details” tab. Depending on the image’s format (.jpg, .tif, .png, etc.) you may discover the image’s dpi as well as any alt-text information associated with the image.

All graphics included in a document must contain alt-text in order to meet accessibility standards. This includes photographs, charts, graphs, and illustrative icons such as those that accompany text sections (such as “Background information,” “Engagement,” “Evaluation,” etc.) For example, in a Word document, after the image has been placed in the draft, right-click on the image and choose “Format Picture.” Look for the Alt Text option and add your description.

Alt-text is required so that screen readers (employed by low- or no vision readers or by individuals with forms of dyslexia) can properly describe the image out loud. Consequently, alt-text should be as descriptive as possible in the shortest number of words. For example, alt-text that has “Figure 4. Blue-winged snipe” is insufficient. “Figure 4 shows a male blue-winged snipe perching on a tree branch” is more appropriate. Alt-text should not repeat the caption of an image, as the screen reader reads both. Adding alt-text to a graphic varies by program; check the software’s Help menu for more information.

Continue to Citing Images and Graphics.

Image Resources

Free stock images

• AGNR Library
• UMD Photography Library
• Bugwood.org
• Pexels.com
• Creative Commons
• US Department of Health & Human Services (HHS) Image Galleries
• USFWS National Digital Library
• NOAA Photo Library
• NASA Image Galleries
• National Institutes of Health (NIH) Images and B-Roll
• https://stock.adobe.com/ (Adobe Stock images are included under the UMD license.)

Stock images

• Shutterstock
• iStock by Getty Images
• Dreamstime
• Adobe Stock Images

Logos

College of Agriculture and Natural Resources

• AGNR Usage Guide (pdf)
  • Primary or centered Logos JPEG or PNG
  • Department Logos

University of Maryland Extension

• UME Usage Guide
  • Wordmark
  • Program logos (e.g., 4-H, FCS, Sea Grant, Nutrient Management)

University of Maryland

• UMD Usage Guide
  • Logos

Other Logos

• Maryland Department of Agriculture
• Maryland Department of Environment
• USDA and Style Guide
• SARE Guidelines
  • National
  • Northeast

Citing Images and Graphics

All images and graphics that are not created specifically for the publication must be accompanied with a citation. For example, if an outside designer creates a series of images of a beehive especially for the publication, the author can choose to acknowledge the designer for each, or, more efficiently, choose to acknowledge the designer at the beginning of the document along with others on the development team. In a similar vein, if the authors create a table that summarizes findings presented in the text, it needs no citation. However, any photograph, table, graph, or other illustration not created for the publication must be acknowledged with the name and/or group of the photographer, illustrator, etc.

If a photo accompanying the text was taken by the author, the citation can be as simple as, “Photo by the author.” However, any photos or other images not created by the author must have a detailed caption that acknowledges the source. The best way is to add the information to a descriptive caption:

Blue-winged snipe nesting on a mattress outlet billboard. Photo by George Sanchez, University of East Haven.

If a table or graph is modified, the original developer(s) must be credited:

Blue-winged snipe nesting distribution along Interstate 95. Modified from Walker and Davenport (2017).

While many photographers are generous in sharing their work in online media, the author must pay special attention to the wording associated with the photo. Many photographers choose to protect their works by appending “all rights reserved” or “some rights reserved” to their name and/or organization. (See the lead photo on this UME page for one example.) Some photographs are accompanied by copyright information or Creative Commons requirements. Be sure to credit them as required:

Blue-winged snipe fledgling. Photo copyright Jeff Delvecchio, Eggshell Studio.

Continue to Using Document Styles to Improve your Draft.

Using Document Styles to Improve your Draft

Applying a style to your document is more than just choosing its title, its accompanying images, and its text flow. Popular software programs such as Microsoft Word include formatting options that enable you to meet both established publication guidelines and accessibility requirements.

⚠ If you plan to use an outside designer to format your publication, be sure they follow these guidelines.

• Manuscript formatting
  • Hyphens - Do not use hyphenation to break up a word when it reaches the edge of the document or text box.  Please turn off the hyphenation setting in the software you are using.  This saves time during the publication layout process, as all hyphens and hard returns must be removed during the the ADA remediation process.
  • Heading levels - Please use heading levels when drafting your publication and stay within the hierarchy (no skipping). Using preset styles in your software can assist the UME layout specialist or outside designer when formatting your document. Do not underline or use bold text to indicate the heading level.
• Logo placement
  • UME: The UME logo can be in a group with other logotypes or logomarks, although it must be clear of competing text, images, or graphics, and the logo should not be distorted or modified. The UME logo should be placed preferably on the left, with the supporting/collaborating logotype or logomark beside or below it. For further instructions on compliance, please refer to the UME Usage Guide.
  • AGNR: Placing the AGNR logo on a UME publication is permitted, but it is not required.  If you choose to include the AGNR logo on your publication, please bear in mind the placement should be on the lower left or right-hand corner of any document. The AGNR logo must stand alone. It must be clear of competing text, images, or graphics, and the logo should not be distorted or modified. For further instructions on compliance, please refer to the AGNR Usage Guide.
• To ensure your manuscript is accessible for those with differing abilities, please read Accessibility For All.

Ready to continue? Next is the Submitting to FastTrack Process.

Accessibility For All

Does your draft publication meet all the accessibility requirements to ensure an inclusive environment for people of all abilities? The University of Maryland established a policy on this important subject.

How can we make our educational materials accessible to all? When writing your publication or designing your curriculum, you need to do the following:

Headings

1. Use the preset styles in your software for screen reader assistive technology access. See “Software” in Accessibility Resources at right for more information.
2. Never skip heading levels.
3. Create bulleted and number lists using the Styles button.

Links

1. Use meaningful and descriptive text. Phrases such as “click here” or “learn more” are less effective than “To learn more about blue-winged snipe, follow this link.”
   1. The screen reader will read out the link to the user. 
   2. Avoid using links that contain random letters, numbers, and symbols.
2. Consider using UMD URL Shortner (go.umd.edu) to rename your link.

Color and Contrast

1. Some people may have difficulty distinguishing certain colors; others may have low-contrast vision due to disease. Choose colors that stand out against the background. To see a wide range of color and contrast examples, visit this page from Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh Innovation Studio.
2. Don’t use color alone to convey meaning
   1. Make sure you add labels to charts and graphs.
   2. Low-contrast font colors make it difficult for users with low vision.

Images

1. All images must have alternate text descriptions, called “alt text,” added to meet accessibility guidelines. Provide alt text to describe the image to improve the user experience. See the guides under “Software” in Accessibility Resources at right for more information.

Tables

1. Create tables with column and/or row headers
   1. Screen reader example:
2. Add Alt text to describe the content.
3. Do NOT split cells or columns
4. Do NOT use tables for decorative use.

Media

1. Add captions to your videos.
   1. Follow the University of Maryland Video Captioning Standard
   2. Provide a transcript for audio files

Adapted from DIT’s “Six Essential Steps”

Now that your draft is ready for submission, continue to The Submitting to FastTrack Process.